By the end of this chapter, the reader should be able to:
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Explain the reinnervation race concept and describe how it shapes ES treatment strategy differently from permanent denervation
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Identify the clinical contexts in which post-surgical denervation occurs and explain why mixed presentations in the limbs require multi-modal ES approaches
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Describe how serial assessment guides protocol transitions as reinnervation progresses, and identify the indicators that signal treatment can shift from denervation to standard NMES parameters
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Evaluate the safety evidence for ES near metallic orthopaedic implants and explain the distinction between therapeutic ES and high-frequency heating modalities